iDigBio: You are putting identifiers on the wrong thing

The Integrated Digitized Biocollections (iDigBio) project aims to advance digitising US biodiversity collections. They recently published a GUID Guide for Data Providers. In the PDF document I read this:

It has been agreed by the iDigBio community that the identifier represents the digital record (database record) of the specimen not the specimen itself. Unlike the barcode that would be on the physical specimen, for instance, the GUID uniquely represents the digital record only. (emphasis added)

My heart sank. There's nothing wrong with having identifiers for metadata (apart from inviting the death spiral that is metadata about metadata), but surely the key to integrating specimens with other biodiversity data is to have globally unique identifiers for the specimens.

Now, identifiers for metadata can be useful. For example, there is a specimen of Parathemisto japonica in the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution with the label "USNM 100988". The NMNH web site has a picture of the index card for this specimen:



This is an image of the metadata, not the specimen itself. We could link the metadata to this image, but of course we also want to link it to the actual specimen.

Specimens are the things we collect, preserve, dissect, measure, sequence, photograph, and so on. I want to link a specimen to the sequences that have been obtains from that specimen, I want to list the publications that cite that specimen, I want to be able to aggregate data on a specimen from multiple sources, I want to be able to add annotations including misidentifications, simple typos, or missing georeferencing.

Key to this is having identifiers for specimens. Identifiers for metadata about those specimens is not good enough. By analogy with bibliographic citation, one of the important decisions CrossRef made was that DOIs for articles identify the article, not the metadata about the article, or any of the different formats (HTML, PDF, print) and article may occur in. This means we can build databases about things and relationships (this article cites that one, these articles were authored by this person, etc.).

As it stands, if we don't have identifiers for specimens then we can't link data together. For example, the frog specimen "USNM 195785" is depicted in the image below (from EOL):



It is also listed in various papers in BioStor. In the absence of a globally unique identifier for this specimen how do I make these links? "USNM 195785" won't do because there are at least four specimens in the USNM with the catalogue number "195785". The GBIF occurrence id for this specimen (http://data.gbif.org/occurrences/244405570) would be an obvious candidate, were it not for the fact that GBIF has no concept of stable identifiers and its occurrence ids regularly change.

I confess I'm flabbergasted that iDigBio has avoid tackling the issue of specimen identifiers. If any museum wants to discover how its collection is being used to support science it will want to find the citations of its specimens in scientific papers and databases. This requires identifiers for specimens.

Elsevier articles have interactive phylogenies

Say what you will about Elsevier, they are certainly exploring ways to re-imagine the scientific article. In a comment on an earlier post Fabian Schreiber pointed out that Elsevier have released an app to display phylogenies in articles they publish. The app is based on jsPhyloSVGand is described here. You can see live examples in these articles:

Matos-Maraví, P. F., Peña, C., Willmott, K. R., Freitas, A. V. L., & Wahlberg, N. (2013). Systematics and evolutionary history of butterflies in the “Taygetis clade” (Nymphalidae: Satyrinae: Euptychiina): Towards a better understanding of Neotropical biogeography. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 66(1), 54–68. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2012.09.005

Poćwierz-Kotus, A., Burzyński, A., & Wenne, R. (2010). Identification of a Tc1-like transposon integration site in the genome of the flounder (Platichthys flesus): A novel use of an inverse PCR method. Marine Genomics, 3(1), 45–50. doi:10.1016/j.margen.2010.03.001

NEXUS parser and tree viewer in Javascript

Following on from the SVG experiments I've started to put some of the Javascript code for displaying phylogenies on Github. Not a repository yet, but as gists, little snippets of code. Mike Bostock has created http://bl.ocks.org/ which makes it possible to host gists as working examples, so you can play with the code "live".

The first gist takes a Newick tree, parses it and displays a tree. You can try it at https://bl.ocks.org/d/4224658/.

The second gist takes a basic NEXUS file containing a TREES block and displays a tree (try it at http://bl.ocks.org/d/4229068/ ). You can grab examples NEXUS tree files from TreeBASE such as tree Tr57874.

Why am I doing this?
Apart from "because it's fun" there are two reasons. The first is that I want a simple way to display phylogenetic trees in web pages, and doing this entirely in the web browser (Javascript parses the tree and renders it in SVG) saves me having to code this on my server. Being able to do this in the browser opens up the opportunity to embed tree descriptions in HTML, for example, and have the browser render the tree. This means the same web page can have machine-readable data (the tree description) but also generate a nice tree for the reader. As an aside, it also shows that TreeBASE could display perfectly good, interactive trees without resorting to a Java appelet.

The other reason is that the web seems to be moving to Javascript as the default language, and JSON as the standard data format. Instead of large chunks of "middleware" (written in a scripting language such as Perl, PHP, or, gack, Java) which is responsible for talking to databases on the server and sending static HTML to the web browser, we now have browsers that can support sophisticated, interactive interfaces built using HTML and Javascript. On the server side we have databases that speak HTTP (essentially removing the need for middleware), store JSON, and use Javascript as their programming language (e.g., CouchDB). In short, it's Javascript, Javascript, everywhere.

The Tree of Life

The following poem by David Maddison was published in Systematic Biology (doi:10.1093/sysbio/sys057) under a CC-BY-NC license.

I think that I shall never see
A thing so awesome as the Tree
That links us all in paths of genes
Down into depths of time unseen;

Whose many branches spreading wide
House wondrous creatures of the tide,
Ocean deep and mountain tall,
Darkened cave and waterfall.

Among the branches we may find
Creatures there of every kind,
From microbe small to redwood vast,
From fungus slow to cheetah fast.

As glaciers move, strikes asteroid
A branch may vanish in the void:
At Permian's end and Tertiary's door,
The Tree was shaken to its core.

The leaves that fall are trapped in time
Beneath cold sheets of sand and lime;
But new leaves sprout as mountains rise,
Breathing life anew 'neath future skies.

On one branch the leaves burst forth:
A jointed limb of firework growth.
With inordinate fondness for splitting lines,
Armored beetles formed myriad kinds.

Wandering there among the leaves,
In awe of variants Time conceived,
We ponder the shape of branching fates,
And elusive origins of their traits.

Three billion years the Tree has grown
From replicators' first seed sown
To branches rich with progeny:
The wonder of phylogeny.

Viewing phylogenies on the web: Javascript conversion of Newick tree to SVG

Quick test of an idea I'm playing with. By embedding a Newick-format tree description in HTML and adding some Javascript I can go from this:

<div class="newick" data-drawing-type="circlephylogram">((((((((219923430:0.046474,219923429:0.009145):0.037428,219923426:0.038397):0.015434,(219923419:0.022612,219923420:0.015561):0.050529):0.004828,(207366059:0.020922,207366058:0.016958):0.038734):0.003901,219923422:0.072942):0.005414,((219923443:0.038239,219923444:0.025617):0.037592,(219923423:0.056081,219923421:0.055808):0.003788):0.009743):0.001299,(219923469:0.072965,125629132:0.044638):0.012516):0.011647,(((((219923464:0.069894,((((((125628927:0.021470,219923456:0.021406):0.003083,219923455:0.021625):0.029147,219923428:0.042785):0.001234,225685777:0.037478):0.016027,((((56549933:0.003265,219923453:-0.000859):0.015462,150371743:0.009558):0.004969,219923452:0.014401):0.024398,((((((150371732:0.001735,((150371733:0,150371736:0):6.195e-05,150371735:-6.195e-05):7.410e-05):0.000580,150371734:0.001196):0.000767,(150371737:0.001274,(150371738:0,150371740:0):0.000551):0.000498):0.000905,70608555:0.003205):0.004807,150371741:0.010751):8.979e-05,150371739:0.006647):0.022090):0.012809):0.011838,219923427:0.057366):0.009364):0.004238,((219923450:0.022699,125628925:0.012519):0.048088,219923466:0.046514):0.003608):0.007025,((56549930:0.067920,219923440:0.059754):0.002384,((219923438:0.044329,219923439:0.038470):0.014514,(219923442:0.038021,(((207366060:0,207366061:0):0.001859,125628920:0.001806):0.024716,((((125628921:0.005610,207366057:0.003531):0.001354,(207366055:0.003311,207366056:0.002174):0.003225):0.011836,207366062:0.019303):0.003741,((((((207366047:0,207366048:0):0,207366049:0):0.001563,207366050:0.000272):0.002214,(207366051:0.000818,125628919:0.001017):0.000675):0.003916,207366054:0.007924):0.004138,((219923441:0.000975,207366052:-0.000975):0.000494,207366053:-0.000494):0.012373):0.010040):0.003349):0.017594):0.011029):-0.003134):0.011235):0.004149,((((219923435:0.064354,219923424:0.067340):0.002972,219923454:0.045087):0.002092,((219923460:0.027282,219923465:0.025756):0.031269,(219923462:0.017555,219923425:-0.009591):0.047358):0.006198):0.004242,(((219923463:0.031885,(219923459:0.000452,219923458:-0.000452):0.029292):0.005200,225685776:0.024691):0.020131,219923461:0.042563):0.004673):0.009128):0.001452,((56549934:0.088142,56549929:0.066475):0.004212,(219923437:0.048313,219923436:0.044997):0.014553):0.008927):0);</div>

...to this (you will need an SVG-capable browser to see anything). The Javascript parses the Newick tree, generates SVG, then replaces the Newick tree in the HTML with the corresponding picture. No need for server-side graphics, the diagram is generated by your web browser based on the Newick tree description.

((((((((219923430:0.046474,219923429:0.009145):0.037428,219923426:0.038397):0.015434,(219923419:0.022612,219923420:0.015561):0.050529):0.004828,(207366059:0.020922,207366058:0.016958):0.038734):0.003901,219923422:0.072942):0.005414,((219923443:0.038239,219923444:0.025617):0.037592,(219923423:0.056081,219923421:0.055808):0.003788):0.009743):0.001299,(219923469:0.072965,125629132:0.044638):0.012516):0.011647,(((((219923464:0.069894,((((((125628927:0.021470,219923456:0.021406):0.003083,219923455:0.021625):0.029147,219923428:0.042785):0.001234,225685777:0.037478):0.016027,((((56549933:0.003265,219923453:-0.000859):0.015462,150371743:0.009558):0.004969,219923452:0.014401):0.024398,((((((150371732:0.001735,((150371733:0,150371736:0):6.195e-05,150371735:-6.195e-05):7.410e-05):0.000580,150371734:0.001196):0.000767,(150371737:0.001274,(150371738:0,150371740:0):0.000551):0.000498):0.000905,70608555:0.003205):0.004807,150371741:0.010751):8.979e-05,150371739:0.006647):0.022090):0.012809):0.011838,219923427:0.057366):0.009364):0.004238,((219923450:0.022699,125628925:0.012519):0.048088,219923466:0.046514):0.003608):0.007025,((56549930:0.067920,219923440:0.059754):0.002384,((219923438:0.044329,219923439:0.038470):0.014514,(219923442:0.038021,(((207366060:0,207366061:0):0.001859,125628920:0.001806):0.024716,((((125628921:0.005610,207366057:0.003531):0.001354,(207366055:0.003311,207366056:0.002174):0.003225):0.011836,207366062:0.019303):0.003741,((((((207366047:0,207366048:0):0,207366049:0):0.001563,207366050:0.000272):0.002214,(207366051:0.000818,125628919:0.001017):0.000675):0.003916,207366054:0.007924):0.004138,((219923441:0.000975,207366052:-0.000975):0.000494,207366053:-0.000494):0.012373):0.010040):0.003349):0.017594):0.011029):-0.003134):0.011235):0.004149,((((219923435:0.064354,219923424:0.067340):0.002972,219923454:0.045087):0.002092,((219923460:0.027282,219923465:0.025756):0.031269,(219923462:0.017555,219923425:-0.009591):0.047358):0.006198):0.004242,(((219923463:0.031885,(219923459:0.000452,219923458:-0.000452):0.029292):0.005200,225685776:0.024691):0.020131,219923461:0.042563):0.004673):0.009128):0.001452,((56549934:0.088142,56549929:0.066475):0.004212,(219923437:0.048313,219923436:0.044997):0.014553):0.008927):0);

Here's the same tree as a phylogram:

((((((((219923430:0.046474,219923429:0.009145):0.037428,219923426:0.038397):0.015434,(219923419:0.022612,219923420:0.015561):0.050529):0.004828,(207366059:0.020922,207366058:0.016958):0.038734):0.003901,219923422:0.072942):0.005414,((219923443:0.038239,219923444:0.025617):0.037592,(219923423:0.056081,219923421:0.055808):0.003788):0.009743):0.001299,(219923469:0.072965,125629132:0.044638):0.012516):0.011647,(((((219923464:0.069894,((((((125628927:0.021470,219923456:0.021406):0.003083,219923455:0.021625):0.029147,219923428:0.042785):0.001234,225685777:0.037478):0.016027,((((56549933:0.003265,219923453:-0.000859):0.015462,150371743:0.009558):0.004969,219923452:0.014401):0.024398,((((((150371732:0.001735,((150371733:0,150371736:0):6.195e-05,150371735:-6.195e-05):7.410e-05):0.000580,150371734:0.001196):0.000767,(150371737:0.001274,(150371738:0,150371740:0):0.000551):0.000498):0.000905,70608555:0.003205):0.004807,150371741:0.010751):8.979e-05,150371739:0.006647):0.022090):0.012809):0.011838,219923427:0.057366):0.009364):0.004238,((219923450:0.022699,125628925:0.012519):0.048088,219923466:0.046514):0.003608):0.007025,((56549930:0.067920,219923440:0.059754):0.002384,((219923438:0.044329,219923439:0.038470):0.014514,(219923442:0.038021,(((207366060:0,207366061:0):0.001859,125628920:0.001806):0.024716,((((125628921:0.005610,207366057:0.003531):0.001354,(207366055:0.003311,207366056:0.002174):0.003225):0.011836,207366062:0.019303):0.003741,((((((207366047:0,207366048:0):0,207366049:0):0.001563,207366050:0.000272):0.002214,(207366051:0.000818,125628919:0.001017):0.000675):0.003916,207366054:0.007924):0.004138,((219923441:0.000975,207366052:-0.000975):0.000494,207366053:-0.000494):0.012373):0.010040):0.003349):0.017594):0.011029):-0.003134):0.011235):0.004149,((((219923435:0.064354,219923424:0.067340):0.002972,219923454:0.045087):0.002092,((219923460:0.027282,219923465:0.025756):0.031269,(219923462:0.017555,219923425:-0.009591):0.047358):0.006198):0.004242,(((219923463:0.031885,(219923459:0.000452,219923458:-0.000452):0.029292):0.005200,225685776:0.024691):0.020131,219923461:0.042563):0.004673):0.009128):0.001452,((56549934:0.088142,56549929:0.066475):0.004212,(219923437:0.048313,219923436:0.044997):0.014553):0.008927):0);

ZooBank data model

I'm trying to get my head around the data model used by ZooBank to store taxonomic names. To do this, I've built a graph for the species Belonoperca pylei described by Baldwin & Smith described in:

Baldwin, C. C., & Smith, W. L. (1998). Belonoperca pylei, a new species of seabass (Teleostei: Serranidae: Epinephelinae: Diploprionini) from the cook islands with comments on relationships among diploprionins. Ichthyological Research, 45(4), 325–339. doi:10.1007/BF02725185

After extracting some data from ZooBank API I created a DOT file connecting the various "taxon name usages" associated with Belonoperca pylei and constructed a graph using GraphViz:

You can grab the DOT file here, and a bigger version of the image is on Flickr. I've labelled taxon names and references with plain text as well as the UUIDs that serve as identifiers in ZooBank. (Update: the original diagram had Belonoperca pylei Baldwin & Smith, 1998 sensu Eschmeyer [9F53EF10-30EE-4445-A071-6112D998B09B] in the wrong place, which I've now fixed.)

This is a fairly simple case of a single species, but it's already starting to look a tad complicated. We have Belonoperca pylei Baldwin & Smith, 1998 linked to its original description (doi:10.1007/BF02725185) and to the genus Belonoperca Fowler & Bean, 1930 (linked to its original publication http://biostor.org/reference/105997) as interpreted by ("sensu") Baldwin & Smith, 1998. Belonoperca Fowler & Bean 1930 sensu Baldwin & Smith 1998 is linked to the original use of that genus (i.e., Belonoperca Fowler & Bean, 1930). Then we have the species Belonoperca pylei Baldwin & Smith, 1998 as understood in Eschmeyer's 2004 checklist.

Notice that each usage of a taxon name gets linked back to a previous usage, and names are linked to higher names in a taxonomic hierarchy. When the species Belonoperca pylei was described it was placed in the genus Belonoperca, when Belonoperca was described it was placed in the family Serranidae, and so on.

Fuzzy matching taxonomic names using ngrams

Quick note to self about possible way to using fuzzy matching when searching for taxonomic names. Now that I'm using Cloudant to host CouchDB databases (e.g., see BioStor in the the cloud) I'd like to have a way to support fuzzy matching so that if I type in a name and misspelt it, there's a reasonable chance I will still find that name. This is the "did you mean?" feature beloved by Google users. There are various ways to tackle this problem, and Tony Rees' TAXAMATCH is perhaps the best known solution.

Cloudant supports Lucence for full text searching, but while this allows some possibility for approximate matching (by appending "~" to the search string) initial experiments suggested it wasn't going to be terribly useful. What does seem to work is to use ngrams. As a crude example, here is a CouchDN view that converts a string (in this case a taxon name) to a series of trigrams (three letter strings) then indexes their concatenation.


{
"_id": "_design/taxonname",
"language": "javascript",
"indexes": {
"all": {
"index": "function(doc) { if (doc.docType == 'taxonName') { var n = doc.nameComplete.length; var ngrams = []; for (var i=0; i < n-2;i++) { var ngram = doc.nameComplete.charAt(i) + doc.nameComplete.charAt(i+1) + doc.nameComplete.charAt(i+2); ngrams.push(ngram); } if (n > 2) { ngrams.push('$' + doc.nameComplete.charAt(0) + doc.nameComplete.charAt(1)); ngrams.push(doc.nameComplete.charAt(n-2) + doc.nameComplete.charAt(n-1) + '$'); } ngrams.sort(); index(\"default\", ngrams.join(' '), {\"store\": \"yes\"}); } }"
}
}
}

To search this view for a name I then generate trigrams for the query string (e.g., "Pomatomix" becomes "$Po Pom oma mat ato tom omi mix ix$" where "$" signals the start or end of the string) and search on that. For example, append this string to the URL of the CouchDB database to search for "Pomatomix":


_design/taxonname/_search/all?q=$Po%20Pom%20oma%20mat%20ato%20tom%20omi%20mix%20ix$&include_docs=true&limit=10


Initial results are promising (searching on bigrams generated an alarming degree of matches that seemed rather dubious). I need to do some more work on this, but it might be a simple and quick way to support "did you mean?" for taxonomic names.

BioStor in the cloud

Quick note on an experimental version of BioStor that is (mostly) hosted in the cloud. BioStor currently runs on a Mac Mini and uses MySQL as the database. For a number of reasons (it's running on a Mac Mini and my knowledge of optimising MySQL is limited) BioStor is struggling a bit. It's also gathered a lot of cruff as I've worked on ways to map article citations to the rather messy metadata in BHL.

So, I've started to play with a version that runs in the cloud using my favourite database, CouchDB. The data is hosted by Cloudant, which now provides full text search powered by Lucene. Essentially, I simply take article-level metadata from BioStor in BibJSON format and push that to Cloudant. I then wrote a simple wrapper around querying CouchDB, couple that with the Documentcloud Viewer to display articles and citeproc-js to format the citations (not exactly fun, but someone is bound to ask for them), and a we have a simple, searchable database of literature.

If you want to try the cloud-based version go to http://biostor-cloud.pagodabox.com/ (code on Github).



I've been wanting to do this for a while, partly because this is how I will implement my entry in EOL's computational data challenge, but also because CrossRef's Metadata search shows the power of finding references simply by using full text search (I've shamelessly borrowed some of the interface styling from Karl Ward's code). David Shorthouse demonstrates what you can do using CrossRef's tool in his post Conference Tweets in the Age of Information Overconsumption. Given how much time I spend trying to parse taxonomic citations and match them to articles in CrossRef's database, or BioStor, I'm looking forward to making this easier.

There are two major limitations of this cloud version of BioStor (aprt from the fact it has only a subset of the articles in BioStor). The first is that the page images are still being served from my Mac Mini, so they can be a bit slow to load. I've put the metadata and the search engine in the cloud, but not the images (we're talking a terabyte or two of bitmaps).

The other limitation is that there's no API. I hope to address this shortly, perhaps mimicking the CrossRef API so if one has code that talks to CrossRef it could just as easily talk to BioStor.

Species wait 21 years to be described - show me the data

Benoît Fontaine et al. recently published a study concluding that average lag time between a species being discovered and subsequently described is 21 years.

Fontaine, B., Perrard, A., & Bouchet, P. (2012). 21 years of shelf life between discovery and description of new species. Current Biology, 22(22), R943–R944. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2012.10.029

The paper concludes:

With a biodiversity crisis that predicts massive extinctions and a shelf life that will continue to reach several decades, taxonomists will increasingly be describing from museum collections species that are already extinct in the wild, just as astronomers observe stars that vanished thousands of years ago.

This is a conclusion that merits more investigation, especially as the title of the paper suggests there is an appalling lack of efficiency (or resources) in the way we decsribe biodiversity. So, with interest I looked at the Supplemental Information for the data:

I was hoping to see the list of the 600 species chosen at random, the publication containing their original description, and the date of their first collection. Instead, all we have is a description of the methods for data collection and analysis. Where is the data? Without the data I have no way of exploring the conclusions, asking additional questions. For example, what is the distribution of date of specimen collection in each species? One could imagine situations where a number of specimens are recently collected, prompting recognition and description of a new species, and as part of that process rummaging through the collections turns up older, unrecognised members of that species. Indeed, if it takes a certain number of specimens to describe a species (people tend to frown upon descriptions based on single specimens) perhaps what we are seeing is the outcome of a sampling process where specimens of new species are rare, they take a while to accumulate in collections, and the distribution of collection dates will have a long tail.

These are the sort of questions we could have if we had the data, but the authors don't provide that. The worrying thing is that we are seeing a number of high-visibility papers that potentially have major implications for how we view the field of taxonomy but which don't publish their data. Another recent example is:

Joppa, L. N., Roberts, D. L., & Pimm, S. L. (2011). The population ecology and social behaviour of taxonomists. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 26(11), 551–553. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2011.07.010

Biodiversity is a big data science, it's time we insisted on that data being made available.

Classification of Accounts - Hints for Journalizing - Advantages of Journal

Personal Accounts

Accounts recording transactions relating to individuals or firms or company are known as personal accounts. Personal accounts may further be classified as :

(1) Natural person's personal accounts: The accounts recording transactions relating to individual human beings e.g., Anand's A/c, Remesh's A/c, Pankaj's A/c are classified as natural person's personal accounts.

(2) Artificial person's personal account: The accounts recording transactions relating to limited companies. bank, firm, institution, club. etc. e.g. Delhi Cloth Mill; Hans Raj College; Gymkhana Club are classified as artificial persons' personal accounts.

(3) Representative personal accounts: The accounts recording transactions relating to the expenses and incomes are classified as nominal accounts. But in certain cases due to the matching concept of accounting the amount, on a particular date, is payable to the individuals or recoverable from individuals.

Such amount (a) relates to the particular head of expenditure or income and (b) represents persons to whom itis payable or from whom it is recoverable. Such accounts are classified as representative personal accounts e.g. "Wages Outstanding Account", Pre-paid Insurance Account. etc.

Real Accounts

The accounts recording transactions relating to tangible things (which can be touched, purchased and sold) such as goods, cash, building. machinery etc., are classified as tangible real accounts.

Whereas the accounts recording transactions relating to. intangible things (which do not have physical shape) such as goodwill, patents and copy rights. trade marks etc., are classified as intangible real accounts.

Nominal Accounts

The accounts recording transactions relating to the losses, gains. expenses and incomes e.g., Rent, salaries, wages, commission, interest, bad debts etc. are classified as nominal accounts. As already discussed, wherever a nominal account represents the amount payable to or receivable from certain persons it is known as representative personal account.

Rules of Debit and Credit (classification based)

1. Personal Accounts: Debit the receiver, Credit the giver (supplier)

2. Real Accounts: Debit what comes in, Credit what goes out

3. Nominal Accounts: Debit expenses and losses, Credit incomes and gains.,

Hints for Journalizing

The following discussion will help in diagnosing the transaction with a view to find out which accounts are relevant for passing the journal entry.

1. Treatment of cash/credit transaction.

Read carefully the following transactions:

(i) Purchased goods for Rs. 1,200 cash. .
(ii) Purchased goods for Rs. 1,200.
(iii) Purchased goods for Rs. 1,200 from Arun.
(iv) Purchased goods for Rs. 1,200 from Arun on cash.

Transaction (i) and (iv) are clear as it has been specifically stated that purchases have been made on cash. Thus the entry is :

Purchases account Dr. 1,200 To Cash account 1,200

Transaction (ii) and (iii) are not specific as to whether the purchases are for cash or on credit. However transaction (ii) does not mention any name of the supplier; therefore it implies that the purchases are for cash. Similarly transaction (iii) mentions the name of the supplier but is silent regarding cash-it implies that purchases are on credit: Thus the entry for transaction (iii) is

Purchases account Dr. 1,200 To Amex 1200.

2. Treatment of payment on personal/expenses account.

When payment is made to a person against amount due to him as per his ledger account-the personal account of the creditor should be debited. However if the payment is being made to a person representing business expenditure then the particular expenditure (nominal) account should be debited.

3. Treatment of receipt on personal/ income account.

When amount is received from a person against amount recoverable from him as per ledger account-the personal account of the debtor should be credited. However if the amount received represents business income, then the particular income (nominal) account should be credited.

Branches of Accounting, Uses of Accounting and Limitations of Financial Accounting

Accounting vs. Book-keepingBook-keeping concerns itself with the recording (correctly and in a set of books) of those transactions that result in the transfer of money or money's worth. Whereas accounting is comprehensive in perspective. It extends to classifying, summarizing, presenting and even analyzing accounting information .

Accounting vs. Accountancy

Body of knowledge (consisting of principles, postulates, assumptions, conventions, concepts and rules) governing the science of recording classifying and analyzing financial transactions is accounting. Whereas the practice and art of the science of accounting is termed as accountancy.To meet the ever increasing demands made on accounting by different interested parties (such as owners, management, creditors, taxation authorities etc.) the various branches have come into existence. Financial AccountingThe object of financial accounting is to ascertain the result (profit or loss) of business operations during the particular period and to state the financial position (Balance Sheet) as on a date at the end of the period.

Cost Accounting

The object of cost accounting is to find out the cost of goods produced or services rendered by a business. It also helps the business in controlling the costs by indicating avoidable losses and wastes.Management AccountingThe object of management accounting is to supply relevant information at appropriate time to the management to enable it to take decision and effect control.In this web primer, we are concerned only with financial accounting. The objects of financial accounting as stated above can be achieved only by recording the financial transactions in a systematic manner according to a set of principles. The recorded information has to be classified, analyzed and presented in a manner in which business results and financial position can be ascertained.

Uses of Accounting

Accounting plays important and useful role by developing the information for providing answers to many questions faced by the users of accounting information.

(1) How good or bad is the financial condition of the business?

(2) Has the business activity resulted in a profit or loss?

(3) How well the different departments of the business have performed in the past?

(4) Which activities or products have been profitable?

(5) Out of the existing products which should be discontinued and the production of which commodities should be increased.

(6) Whether to buy a component from the market or to manufacture the same?

(7) Whether the cost of production is reasonable or excessive?

(8) What has been the impact of existing policies on the profitability of the business?

(9) What are the likely results of new policy decisions on future earning capacity of the business?

(10) In the light of past performance of the business how it should plan for future to ensure desired results ?

Above mentioned are few examples of the types of questions faced by the users of accounting information. These can be satisfactorily answered with the help of suitable and necessary information provided by accounting.

Besides, accounting is also useful in the following respects :-

(1) Increased volume of business results in large number of transactions and no businessman can remember everything. Accounting records obviate the necessity of remembering various transactions.

(2) Accounting record, prepared on the basis of uniform practices, will enable a business to compare results of one period with another period.

(3) Taxation authorities (both income tax and sales tax) are likely to believe the facts contained in the set of accounting books if maintained according to generally accepted accounting principles.

(4) Cocooning records, backed up by proper and authenticated vouchers are good evidence in a court of law.

(5) If a business is to be sold as a going concern then the values of different assets as shown.

Trainee Accounting Jobs - Could You Be A Graduate Accountant?

As an accounting trainee, you would be working with an accountant who is CCAB qualified, who would be in essence your mentor for the field of accountancy. The vast majority of accounting jobs in the UK state that the organization is looking for CCAB-qualified accountants. As a trainee, you could land a job with an organization to train in accounting while you were going to school for accounting to get some hands on experience.

Trainee accounting jobs are quite plentiful within the UK because of the vastness of accounting jobs throughout the area. While accounting may seem boring to some, there is still a need for new, young accountants to enter the field, which is why CCAB-qualified accountants are taking new people under their wings as trainees--to keep a steady flow of accountants who are CCAB-qualified in the ranks.

In the UK, there are different levels of accountants:

Chartered Certified Accountant: A member of the Association of Chartered Certified Accountants whose designation letters would read ACCA or FCCA.

Chartered Accountant: A member of either the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, with designation letters of ACA or FCA, the Institute of Chartered Accountants in Scotland with designation letters of CA, The Institute of Chartered Accountants in Ireland with designation letters of ACA or FCA, or any recognized equivalent body from another commonwealth country, such as Canada.

Chartered Management Accountant: A member of the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants, with designation letters of ACMA or FCMA.

Chartered Public Finance Accountant: A member of the Chartered Institute of Public Finance and Accountancy with designation letters of CPFA.

International Accountant: A member of the Association of International Accountants with designation letters of AIAA or FAIA.

Authorized Public Accountant: A member of the Association of Authorized Public Accountants with designation letters of AAPA.

Incorporated Financial Accountant: A member of the Institute of Financial Accountants with designation letters of FFA or AFA.

UK Self employed Accounting Software and Self Assessment Tax Returns

In the UK anyone receiving earned income which is not taxed under the employers PAYE system is technically self employed. Anyone who is self employed and running a business in the UK must register that business with HM Revenue and Customs within 3 months of starting that self employed business and failure to do so can lead to penalty fines.

All self employed businesses must keep records of the financial transactions and submit these accounts annually to HM Revenue and Customs in the format of the self assessment tax return which are supplementary pages included in the self employed annual tax return.

Different standards for accounting by self employed business are applicable compared to the accounting requirements of a limited liability company and consequently much simpler Accounting Software can be applied. Accounting Software for a limited company invariably requires a double entry system of accounting that produces not just a profit and loss account but also a balance sheet. The Accounting Software has to deal with business bank accounts, debtors and creditors and produce reconcilable results.

While advisable for self employed businesses to maintain a separate bank account it is not an essential requirement. The Accounting Software used by anyone self employed should keep accurate records of fixed assets although it is not essential that this Accounting Software also produces a balance sheet. With these factors in mind Accounting Software for the self employed can be much simpler and greatly advantageous if that Accounting Software also produces the numerous and sometimes onerous burden of HM Revenue and Customs tax returns and working papers.

Self Employed Accounting Software Requirements

Accounting Software for anyone Self Employed does not have to be double entry. The Accounting Software can be a single entry system which makes the value of using Accounting Software based upon excel spreadsheets feasible and due to the simplicity highly desirable. Such Accounting Software being excel based is fast and easy to use, utilising all the benefits and advantages excel offers. Accounting Software that is also highly visible at the click of a button. Accounting Software on a database hides the financial transactions that the Accounting Software has to query to retrieve the required information. It is this element of an Accounting Software database that often requires some technical accounting knowledge to operate efficiently. Accounting Software written on excel spreadsheets is, due to its visibility, much easier to use and understand and requires little or no accounting experience.

Accounting Software written on excel spreadsheets makes an ideal solution for the self employed businessman. Good financial records are the key to the success of any self employed business and especially to the value of Accounting Software. A quality Accounting Software package is an essential component of your business to identify potential problem areas and capitalise on success to drive the business forward.

Accounting Software and HM Revenue and Customs Returns

Different types of Accounting Software are available for the Self Employed and some of this software has been specifically designed to cater for the precise size and requirements of the self employed business. There are basic Accounting Software packages available for the self employed business that is not vat registered and have no employees. Standard Accounting Software packages for the self employed business that is vat registered. The vat threshold limit at which businesses are liable for vat is £61,000 up to April 2007 and subject to possible changes after that date. Advanced and more sophisticated Accounting Software for the self employed who also employ staff are available with integrated payroll software included in the Accounting Software packages.

The Types Of Accounting

Accounting is the art of analyzing and interpreting data. It may not be apparent to some but every business and every individual uses accounting in some form. An individual may knowingly or unknowingly use accounting when he evaluates his financial information and relays the results to others. Accounting is an indispensable tool in any business, may it be small or multi-national.

The term "accounting" covers many different types of accounting on the basis of the group or groups served. The following are the types of accounting.

1. Private or Industrial Accounting: This type of accounting refers to accounting activity that is limited only to a single firm. A private accountant provides his skills and services to a single employer and receives salary on an employer-employee basis. The term private is applied to the accountant and the accounting service he renders. The term is used when an employer-employee type of relationship exists even though the employer is some case is a public corporation.

2. Public Accounting: Public accounting refers to the accounting service offered by a public accountant to the general public. When a practitioner-client relationship exists, the accountant is referred to as a public accountant. Public accounting is considered to be more professional than private accounting. Both certified and non certified public accountants can provide public accounting services. Certified accountants can be single practitioners or by partnership ranging in size from two to hundreds of members. The scope of these accounting firms can include local, national and international clientele.

3. Governmental Accounting: Governmental accounting refers to accounting for a branch or unit of government at any level, may it be federal, state, or local. Governmental accounting is very similar to conventional accounting methods. Both the governmental and conventional accounting methods use the double-entry system of accounting and journals and ledgers. The object of government accounting units is to give service rather than make profits. Since profit motive cannot be used as a measure of efficiency in government units, other control measures must be developed. To enhance control, special funds accounting is used. Governmental units can use the services of both private and public accountant just as any business entity.

4. Fiduciary Accounting: Fiduciary accounting lies in the notion of trust. This type of accounting is done by a trustee, administrator, executor, or anyone in a position of trust. His work is to keep the records and prepares the reports. This may be authorized by or under the jurisdiction of a court of law. The fiduciary accountant should seek out and control all property subject to the estate or trust. The concept of proprietorship that is common in the usual types of accounting is non-existent or greatly modified in fiduciary accounting.

5. National Income Accounting: National income accounting uses the economic or social concept in establishing accounting rather than the usual business entity concept. The national income accounting is responsible in providing the public an estimate of the nation's annual purchasing power. The GNP or the gross national product is a related term, which refers to the total market value of all the goods and services produced by a country within a given.

In Summary - What Is Major Account Management All About?

Major Account Management Is a Long Term Process - It Takes Time:

We must recognise that we are in Major Account Management for the long term. It takes time to manage a major account and we will only receive a payback on our investment in time if we can have a long term result. In some of the organisations we have worked with this produces a tension because the whole culture is about creating a short term sales result in which product and profit are the main drivers and measures of success. We should not underestimate what a challenge Major Account Management can be to the corporate culture. It emphasises relationship more than product, profit more than volume, and team more than individual, long term more than short term. At the same time the practical short term realities of business life need to be recognised.

One of the best ways of managing this tension is to have someone who acts as a mentor, conscience or guide to the account manager and account team. They are not involved in the day to day management of the account but are invited in to look at and comment on major proposals and presentations. Their main role is to be involved in reviewing the long term plan every few months to ensure that the relationship is as productive as possible and is reflecting the values of the organisation as a whole.

The role of the major account manager is to be responsible for the overall relationship. They influence all those involved in the account to ensure a co-ordinated, synchronised approach. The major account manager is responsible for drafting the account plan, gaining the agreement and commitment of the team and then monitoring implementation

Major Account Management Involves Relationships Not Just a Mechanical Approach:

Under this heading we should discuss three main aspects of major account management.

o The importance of relationships in Major Account Management.

o The complexity of relationships in Major Account Management.

o Mapping relationships in Major Account Management.

Importance:

In Major Account Management it is essential that we manage people as well as processes. Of course we must get the product pricing right. We need to be excellent at administration. Our customer service and product range need to be strong. But "people buy from people" and "we are in a people business". To manage the complex range of relationships within a major account is difficult and demanding but our ability to manage relationships will define whether or not we sustain success.

Complexity:

In a reactive sale there is only one relationship - that between the seller and the buyer. In major accounts the situation is much more complex. There are often contacts going on at many levels and many locations. In one major account, we have identified 1000 relationships between the account team of ten people and individuals representing the client. But it is not just a problem of numbers, it is often a problem of politics. Some contacts do not want us to talk to people in other departments or at different levels. It can also be that the complexity is caused by product range. The users of one product rarely speak to the specifies for another product. In any complex relationship some people will like us more than others. This is to say nothing of inter-departmental tensions. All these things make major account relationships complex and we need to recognise their complexity.

Mapping:

If relationships are important and if relationships are complex then it is essential that we find a way of mapping, analysing, planning and monitoring those relationships. Over recent years we have found that an approach based on the game of chess allows a very practical way of identifying the key issues.

If we can answer these questions confidently and communicate our thinking across the account team simply and clearly then we will be half-way to success. This approach has given people across a broad spectrum of organisations a common language and way of working

It Can Only Be Done With Selected Customers:

The final word from this definition is selected. Choosing the right key accounts is of critical importance for three main reasons:

o We do not have the resources to treat every customer as a key account.

o Not every customer wants to be treated as a key account.

o Selection allows us to prioritise our activities in line with our overall business objectives.

Accounting Professionals: Are The Necessary?

Does your business needs an outside accountant?

It all depends. If you require an audited or reviewed financial statement, then, yes, you need a CPA. In any event, it is always a good idea to maintain a relationship with an accountant no matter how small your business. Whether your accountant is a CPA is up to you. The real question is: To what extent do you need outside accounting services? That also depends on you and the nature of your business.

I always start with the admonition: The Buck Stops With You! You cannot afford to dissociate yourself from understanding the meaning of your financial statements. If you solely rely on your accounting staff or accountant for completely accurate financial data, then you are asking for trouble. If you are going to own or manage a business, then you have a responsibility to learn how to speak the language of business. The language of business is accounting knowledge.

How involved you become in the accounting process will be determined by time schedules, your mental pre-disposition, desire for control, cash flow, etc. One scenario, if you can afford it, is to hire an internal accounting staff to prepare financial statements on a monthly basis and have an external accountant check them over. Another common scenario is to prepare part of the compilation yourself, such as preparing a sales journal and a cash disbursements journal, and then hire an outside accountant to prepare a bank reconciliation and the financial statements for you. Some do this on a monthly basis, others quarterly. Some business owners do the books themselves all year and turn them over to the accountant at the end of the year to verify the balances and do the depreciation entry for tax purposes.

There are numerous ways to work with an accountant. Regardless, you should learn enough about accounting to be able to communicate intelligently with your accountant. Since you are intimately involved in your business you may recognize danger signals that not even your accountant will see.

Selecting an accountant

Relying on the yellow pages to find an accountant can be risky. The best way to find any professional is by a referral. However, you need to interview prospective accountants before signing on. One of the first priorities is to find out what their experience level is. Your business may have very specific accounting and tax issues that require a certain amount of expertise. Perhaps you have a manufacturing concern. What does the accountant know about raw materials, work-in-process, and finished goods inventory accounting? Does the accountant know how to set up job-costing and overhead burdens? Ask for references from other like-kind businesses.

Keep in mind, that you may go to an established firm with a good reputation, but with whom are you going to have a relationship? Is your account large enough to warrant a relationship with a partner? You need to feel confident with the person assigned to your account. Perhaps a smaller firm with four or five accountants who are all seasoned veterans might work better.

You will also want someone with whom you can relate. The ability to communicate is a crucial factor. Your accountant may be technically proficient but can you understand what he or she is telling you? Does he or she listen when you ask questions? Don't be afraid to ask for someone else if you are having difficulty communicating.

Another important criterion is "accessibility". Is your accountant too busy to talk to you? Can you get your questions answered within a reasonable period of time? Do you feel important to him or her? Situations may arise where you need information immediately to make an important business or tax decision, will your accountant respond quickly?

Last, but not least, are the accountant's billing practices. Billing practices vary from firm to firm. Some firms are very aggressive and put tremendous pressure on staff and partners to bill every minute they can. Some firms require a review process before any work goes out the door. This means that every person who performs any work on your account, including the person who puts the stamp on your envelope, bills you for it.

How To Choose The Right Accountant

An accountant is a professional who keeps track of the financial records of a business or an individual. There are a number of individuals and businesses who use the services of an accountant all year round. There are other individuals who only hire an accountant to help get all of their finances in order before their tax returns are due. There are millions of accountants located all around the world. With many cities and towns having at least ten professional accountants it is often difficult for many individuals to decide which accountant they should hire.

Learning how to choose an accountant for personal or business use is a fairly easy process. There are a number of factors that should be considered before the services of an accountant are actually hired. The best way to get started on hiring an accountant is by finding a number of them in the area. It is possible to hire an accountant that is not located in the same area as an individual or business; however, many individuals feel that it is easier to deal with an accountant who is local.

There are a number of ways that an individual or business can find an accountant. The most popular way is through research. Many professional accountants are listed in the local phone or they advertise their business online. When using a phone book to find an accountant individuals should look in the yellow pages or the business directory of their phone book. The majority of accountants are listed under the heading of Accounting and Bookkeeping. It is also possible for an accountant to be found by using an online business directory. Online business directories work in the same way that a traditional phone book does; however, they are often nationwide and sometimes include feedback from previous customers. Feedback ratings of a particular company may come in handy when trying to find an reputable accountant to do business with. Many individuals also find an accountant by asking for recommendations from family, friends, and coworkers.

Personal recommendations are a great way to learn about an accountant that is professional and highly recommend; however, individuals and business owners are encouraged not to just take the word of someone that they know. A large number of accountants offer free consultations to the general public. Individuals and business owners are encouraged to use a free consultations to learn more about an accountant. If a free consultation is not available many professional accountants do not mind answering a number of questions over the phone or in an email.

The most important thing to consider when looking to choose an accountant is their qualifications. There are many states that require their accountants to become certified before operating a business, but there are others that do not regulate the way that accountants operate. A certified public accountant (CPA) is often a professional individual who was trained and has a large amount of accounting experience. Many certified public accountants charge more for their services, but at the same time they often offer better results.

There are many accountants who handle a wide variety of case loads; however, there are some that only specialize in a specific area of accounting or deal with a certain type of client. Individuals and business owners are encouraged to speak with an accountant to determine if their services can be applied to their individual needs. There are many accountants who only specialize in personal accounting while others may only work with business owners.

It is also important to determine if an accountant is working on their own or if they are a part of a larger accounting team. While each may have their advantages it is possible that a large accounting firm may mean that multiple accountants will be working on your finances. There are many individuals who only want to work with one accountant instead of multiple accountants. Working one on one with a specific accountant often allows individuals to feel like they are getting the appropriate amount of attention and it also creates less confusion and errors.

Setting Up Your Chart of Accounts

While installing your new accounting software you have most likely been asked whether you would like to use one of the default charts of accounts included with the program or develop your own. Unless you are very familiar with setting up a set of financial books you will want to choose from one of the selections offered. And even if you have the experience choosing one of the defaults will save you a great deal of time. But you may ask what if I don't need all these accounts and how do I know which accounts I should keep. And should I use a numbering system or not? Let me help you by explaining just what a Chart of Accounts is and how to adjust the default list to your needs.

First of all a Chart of Accounts in its simplest definition is a list of accounts used to track all financial transactions that flow through a business. This list is typically broken in to eight segments: Assets, Liabilities, Equity, Income, Cost of Goods Sold, General and Administrative Expenses, Other Income and Other Expenses. You might see Equity referred to as Capital, Cost of Goods Sold referred to as Direct Costs, and General and Administrative Expenses referred to as Expenses. Companies that wish to track Sales Expenses such as commissions, salaries and related expenses of sales personnel and other costs related directly to sales activity might also add a Sales Expense segment.

The first three segments represent the accounts you will find on a Balance Sheet and they will be broken down into sub-segments. Under Assets you will find sub-segments for Current Assets, Fixed Assets and sometimes Other Assets. Current Assets accounts are used for assets that can be readily liquidated into cash, such as cash, investments, accounts and notes receivables, and deposits. You may choose when setting up more than one cash account or receivable account to create a further segment. This will allow you to summarize all your cash accounts, for example, on your balance sheet while keeping a separate recording account for each bank account. Fixed Assets accounts are used to record the cost of items purchased that have a useful life that extends beyond one year. The Fixed Assets segment also includes contra-accounts (reduction of the value of an asset) that are used to record the depreciation of your fixed assets. These contra-accounts are typically named "Allowance for Depreciation - (name of type of fixed asset)". You should have a fixed asset account and corresponding depreciation account for each type of fixed asset you purchase. Some examples are vehicles, office equipment and furniture, building or leasehold improvements. The Other Assets segment is used for all other types of assets.

Likewise the Liabilities segment is broken into Current Liabilities and Long-Term Liabilities. Current liabilities represent the company's liabilities that are to be paid in less than one year. Examples are Accounts Payable, Payroll Tax Liabilities, and Note Payables. Long Term Liabilities represent liabilities that are to be paid over a longer term than one year such as mortgages, vehicles loans and other long term debt.

The third segment of the balance sheet is the Equity, or Capital, segment. This segment consists of accounts that record the owner's, partners or shareholders investments, draws of profits taken from the company by the investors and the net earnings of the company. For each owner or partner within a business entity there should be an individual investment account and draw account. When a company is incorporated than the capital investment by the shareholders is recorded into capital stock accounts. These accounts may be broken down further if different types of stock are issued. The Retained Earnings account is used to record the profit, or loss, the company has earned from the beginning of its existence. Usually you will not be posting to this account, as this is the account your software program will use to close out your end of year income statement accounts.

Moving on to the Income Statement segments, you will want to have in the Income segment accounts to record each type of income you earn in the course of your business. You may want to break out your sales income into more than one account if you have more than one type of service or product. For example if you are a general contractor you may want to track how sales compare between remodeling and new homes.

Cost of Goods Sold or Direct Costs are those expenses that relate directly to the sale of a product or service. Again if you are a contractor these typically would include payroll and payroll expenses of your workers, materials, subcontractors, permits, general liability and workman's compensation insurance, equipment rentals, etc. They would not include rent or office supplies.

General and Administrative Expenses are business expenses incurred that are not dependent on the sale of a product or service. They include rent, phone, office payroll and payroll expenses, employee benefits, office supplies, utilities, etc.

Other Income typically includes non-sales income such as interest income. Federal and State Income Taxes and any related interest and penalty expenses are what you will find in the Other Expense segment.

Now that you have an idea of how a Chart of Accounts if typically set up, how do you pick and choose what accounts to keep and which to delete? Print out the default list and go through it choosing the accounts you think you will need. You will need at least one cash account, an account receivable and accounts payable account. If you do not have employees and don't ever expect to have any than by all means delete all accounts with payroll in the name.

Becoming a Certified Professional Accountant or CPA

The work of a Certified Public Accountant (CPA) or for the purposes of this article, a Certified Professional Accountant, requires involvement in a broad range of accounting, auditing, tax, and consulting activities. Most positions for a Certified Professional Accountant require a minimum of a bachelor's degree in accounting or related field, and will often require or prefer a master's degree in accounting, or at least some course work in an accounting master's degree program.

A Certified Professional Accountant must reach the (CPA) status through CPA certification. This involves a number of recommendations and requirements in order to receive certification. As of early 2005, based on recommendations made by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA), 42 States and the District of Columbia require CPA candidates to complete 150 semester hours of college course work, which is an additional 30 hours beyond the typical four year bachelor's degree program. Another five States have adopted similar legislation that will go into effect between 2006 and 2009. The only States not requiring 150 semester hours are Colorado, Delaware, New Hampshire, and Vermont. Because of the Nation's response to this trend, the majority of institutions of higher education have altered curriculum planning accordingly, with most programs offering master's degrees as part of the 150 required hours.

To become a Certified Professional Account and receive CPA certification, individuals in all states are required to take a four part, Uniform CPA Examination prepared by the AICPA. This two-day examination is extremely rigorous and detailed. Approximately 25 percent of individuals who take the exam each year pass every part they attempt. Candidates that take the CPA examination are not required to pass all four parts at once, but most States do require that those taking the exam pass at least two parts for partial credit, and are required to complete all four sections within a certain period given by the State in which certification is sought. The CPA exam is computerized, and is offered quarterly at many different testing centers throughout the nation. The majority of States also require applications for CPA certification to also have work experience in the field of accounting.

Once CPA certification has been received, a Certified Professional Accountant has many career options available. Certified Professional Accountants may choose to be self employed, or may seek employment with banks and credit unions; government agencies; businesses; nonprofit organizations; accounting firms; auditing firms; and a variety of other areas. Based on the individual Certified Professional Accountant, it is possible to advance within a corporation or accounting department quite rapidly. Certified Professional Accountants that have inadequate preparation, or those that are not adequately detail oriented, for example, may find career advancement very difficult.

A Certified Professional Accountant may perform a variety of job duties. Certified Professional Accountants generally perform a broad range of accounting, tax, and consulting services for their clients. Some may choose to specialize in different areas, such as auditing or forensic accounting, which involves investigating and interpreting white collar crimes such as securities fraud and embezzlement, bankruptcies and contract disputes, and other complex and possibly criminal financial transactions, including money laundering by organized criminals.

An entry level Certified Professional Accountant will generally maintain records of routine accounting transactions, and may also assist in the preparation of financial and operating reports, including trial balances, adjustments, and closing entries. The entry level Certified Professional Accountant may also assist in the analysis and interpretation of accounting records for use by the management team.

The intermediate Certified Professional Accountant prepares and maintains accounting records, not only for general accounting, but may also work with costing and budget data, as well as examine, analyze and interpret accounting records for the purpose of giving advice or preparing statements. An intermediate Certified Professional Accountant often acts as a lead to lower level employees in the accounting department.

Accountant Job Description

An accountant's job entails working to ensure that business firms and individuals are keeping good records and paying taxes properly and on time. Though the accountant job description for some accounting positions may be simple, other accountant job descriptions are not quite as clear because of the number of duties that are required.

In general, an accountant performs vital functions to businesses, as well as individuals, of all types by offering a very wide array of business and accounting services, including public, management and government accounting, as well as internal auditing. These four major fields of accounting, and in addition to having a minimum of a bachelor's degree, each has a separate accountant job description.

1. Public Accountant

A public accountant job description can be summed up in what most people envision as "typical" accountant's work. It involves performing a broad range of accounting, auditing, tax, and consulting activities for their clients, which may be corporations, governments, nonprofit organizations, and individuals. Specialties in public accounting are often chosen. For example, a public accountant may choose to concentrate on tax matters, such as advising companies about the tax advantages and disadvantages of certain business decisions and preparing individual income tax returns. Other public accountants may choose areas such as compensation or employee health care benefits, or may design accounting and data processing systems. Still other public accountants may choose to specialize in auditing financial statements and inform investors and authorities that statements have been correctly prepared and reported. Public accounts are usually Certified Public Accountants (CPAs), and generally own their own businesses or work for public accounting firms.

2. Management Accountant

Another accountant job description is that of a management accountant. Also called a cost, managerial, industrial, corporate, or private account, management accountants record and analyze the financial information of the companies for which they work. The management accountant job description includes a detailed listing of responsibilities, such as budgeting, performance evaluation, cost management, and asset management. Management accountants are often a part of executive teams involved in strategic planning or the development of new products, where they analyze and interpret financial information that corporate executives need in order to make sound business decisions. They also prepare financial reports for other groups, including stock holders, creditors, regulatory agencies, and tax authorities. Management accountants are usually a part of an accounting department, employed a large company, and may work in many areas that may include financial analysis, planning, budgeting, and cost accounting.

3. Government Accountant

A government accountant works in the public sector, maintaining and examining the records of government agencies and auditing private businesses and individuals whose activities are subject to government regulation and/or taxation. This accountant job description, while detailed, is much more specialized. Government accountants are employed by Federal, State, or local governments, and work to guarantee that revenues are received and expenditures are made in accordance with laws and regulations. Those employed by the Federal government may work as Internal Revenue Services agents or in financial management, financial institution examination, or budget analysis and administration.

4. Internal Auditor Accountant

The accountant job description of an internal auditor can basically be summarized by the job title. Internal auditors verify the accuracy of their organization's internal records, and check for mismanagement, waste, or fraud. It is an increasingly important area of accounting, because internal auditors examine and evaluate their firms' financial and information systems, management procedures, and internal controls to ensure that records are accurate and controls are adequate to protect against fraud and waste. They also review company operations, evaluating their efficiency, effectiveness, and compliance with corporate policies and procedures, laws, and government regulations.